The following account of the stages of skill … [Dreyfus's] study of that process among airplane pilots, chess players, automobile … [Dreyfus H. and Dreyfus S., Mind over Machine, 1986]. It was later found to fit almost perfectly data that … [Benner P., From Novice to Expert, 1984]. … [The stages are novice (recognize relevant facts and acquire rules), advanced beginner (recognition of situational features), competence (use of organizing plans), proficiency (understanding without deliberation), and expertise (performance without deliberation).]
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